The Witch Hunts:
The End of Magic and Miracles
1450-1750 C.E.
by Helen Ellerbe
from The Dark Side of Christian History
The
Reformation did not convert the people of Europe to orthodox
Christianity through preaching and catechisms alone. It was the 300
year period of witch-hunting from the fifteenth to the eighteenth
century, what R.H. Robbins called "the shocking nightmare, the foulest
crime and deepest shame of western civilization," that ensured the
European abandonment of the belief in magic. The Church created the
elaborate concept of devil worship and then, used the persecution of it
to wipe out dissent, subordinate the individual to authoritarian
control, and openly denigrate women.
The witch hunts were an
eruption of orthodox Christianity's vilification of women, "the weaker
vessel," in St. Paul's words. The second century St. Clement of
Alexandria wrote: "Every woman should be filled with shame by the
thought that she is a woman." The Church father Tertullian explained
why women deserve their status as despised and inferior human beings:
And
do you not know you are an Eve? The sentence of God on this sex of
yours lives in this age: the guilt must of necessity live too. You are
the devil 's gateway: you are the unsealer of that tree: you are the
first deserter of the divine law: you are she who persuaded him whom
the devil was not valiant enough to attack. You destroyed so easily God
's image, man. On account of your desert -- that is, death -- even the
Son of God had to die.
Others expressed the view more bluntly.
The sixth century Christian philosopher, Boethius, wrote in The
Consolation of Philosophy, "Woman is a temple built upon a sewer."
Bishops at the sixth century Council of Macon voted as to whether women
had souls. In the tenth century Odo of Cluny declared, "To embrace a
woman is to embrace a sack of manure..." The thirteenth century St.
Thomas Aquinas suggested that God had made a mistake in creating woman:
"nothing [deficient] or defective should have been produced in the
first establishment of things; so woman ought not to have been produced
then." And Lutherans at Wittenberg debated whether women were really
human beings at all. Orthodox Christians held women responsible for all
sin. As the Bible's Apocrypha states, "Of woman came the beginning of
sin/ And thanks to her, we all must die."
Women are often
understood to be impediments to spirituality in a context where God
reigns strictly from heaven and demands a renunciation of physical
pleasure. As I Corinthians 7:1 states, "It is a good thing for a man to
have nothing to do with a woman." The Inquisitors who wrote the Malleus
Maleficarum, "The Hammer of the Witches," explained that women are more
likely to become witches than men:
'Because the female sex is
more concerned with things of the flesh than men;' because being formed
from a man's rib, they are 'only imperfect animals' and 'crooked'
whereas man belongs to a privileged sex from whose midst Christ
emerged.
King James I estimated that the ratio of women to men
who "succumbed" to witchcraft was twenty to one. Of those formally
persecuted for witchcraft, between 80 to 90 percent were women.
Christians found fault with women on all sorts of counts. An historian notes that thirteenth century preachers
...denounced
women on the one hand for ... the 'lascivious and carnal provocation'
of their garments, and on the other hand for being over-industrious,
too occupied with children and housekeeping, too earthbound to give due
thought to divine things.
According to a Dominican of the same
period, woman is "the confusion of man, an insatiable beast, a
continuous anxiety, an incessant warfare, a daily ruin, a house of
tempest ... a hindrance to devotion."
As reformational fervor
spread, the feminine aspect of Christianity in the worship of Mary
became suspect. Throughout the Middle Ages, Mary's powers were believed
to effectively curtail those of the devil. But Protestants entirely
dismissed reverence for Mary while reformed Catholics diminished her
importance. Devotion to Mary often became indicative of evil. In the
Canary islands, Aldonca de Vargas was reported to the Inquisition after
she smiled at hearing mention of the Virgin Mary. Inquisitors distorted
an image of the Virgin Mary into a device of torture, covering the
front side of a statue of Mary with sharp knives and nails. Levers
would move the arms of the statue crushing the victim against the
knives and nails.
The witch hunts also demonstrated great fear
of female sexuality. The book that served as the manual for
understanding and persecuting witchcraft, the Malleus Maleficarum,
describes how witches were known to "collect male organs in great
numbers, as many as twenty or thirty members together, and put them in
a bird's nest..." The manual recounts a story of a man who, having lost
his penis, went to a witch to have it restored:
She told the
afflicted man to climb a certain tree, and that he might take which he
liked out of a nest in which there were several members. And when he
tried to take a big one, the witch said: You must not take that one;
adding, because it belonged to a parish priest.
A man in 1621 lamented, "of women's unnatural, unsatiable lust ... what country, what village doth not complain."
While
most of what became known as witchcraft was invented by Christians,
certain elements of witchcraft did represent an older pagan tradition.
Witchcraft was linked and even considered to be synonymous with
"divination," which means not only the art of foretelling the future,
but also the discovery of knowledge by the aid of supernatural power.
It suggests that there is such power available -- something orthodox
Christians insisted could only be the power of the devil, for God was
no longer to be involved with the physical world.
The word
"witch" comes from the old English wicce and wicca, meaning the male
and female participants in the ancient pagan tradition which holds
masculine, feminine and earthly aspects of God in great reverence.
Rather than a God which stood above the world, removed from ordinary
life, divinity in the Wiccan tradition was understood to imbue both
heaven and earth. This tradition also recalled a period when human
society functioned without hierarchy -- either matriarchal or
patriarchal -- and without gender, racial or strict class rankings. It
was a tradition that affirmed the potential for humanity to live
without domination and fear, something orthodox Christians maintain is
impossible.
The early Church had tried to eradicate the
vestiges of this older non-hierarchical tradition by denying the
existence of witches or magic outside of the Church. The Canon
Episcopi, a Church law which first appeared in 906, decreed that belief
in witchcraft was heretical. After describing pagan rituals which
involved women demonstrating extraordinary powers, it declared:
Far
an innumerable multitude, deceived by this false opinion, believe this
to be true and, so believing, wander from the right faith and are
involved in the error of the pagans when they think that there is
anything of divinity or power except the one God.
Nevertheless,
the belief in magic was still so prevalent in the fourteenth century
that the Council of Chartres ordered anathema to be pronounced against
sorcerers each Sunday in every church.
It took the Church a
long time to persuade society that women were inclined toward evil
witchcraft and devil-worship. Reversing its policy of denying the
existence of witches, in the thirteenth century the Church began
depicting the witch as a slave of the devil. No longer was she or he to
be associated with an older pagan tradition. No longer was the witch to
be thought of as benevolent healer, teacher, wise woman, or one who
accessed divine power. She was now to be an evil satanic agent. The
Church began authorizing frightening portrayals of the devil in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Images of a witch riding a broom
first appeared in 1280. Thirteenth century art also depicted the
devil's pact in which demons would steal children and in which parents
themselves would deliver their children to the devil. The Church now
portrayed witches with the same images so frequently used to
characterize heretics: "...a small clandestine society engaged in
anti-human practices, including infanticide, incest, cannibalism,
bestiality and orgiastic sex..."
The Church developed the
concept of devil-worship as an astoundingly simplistic reversal of
Christian rites and practices. Whereas God imposed divine law, the
devil demanded adherence to a pact. Where Christians showed reverence
to God by kneeling, witches paid homage to the devil by standing on
their heads. The sacraments in the Catholic Church became excrements in
the devil's church. Communion was parodied by the Black Mass. Christian
prayers could be used to work evil by being recited backwards. The
eucharist bread or host was imitated in the devil's service by a
turnip. The baptismal "character" or stigmata of the mysteries was
parodied by the devil's mark impressed upon the witch's body by the
claw of the devil's left hand. Whereas saints had the gift of tears,
witches were said to be incapable of shedding tears. Devil worship was
a simple parody of Christianity. Indeed, the very concept of the devil
was exclusive to monotheism and had no importance within the pagan,
Wiccan tradition.
The Church also projected its own
hierarchical framework onto this new evil witchcraft. The devil's
church was to be organized such that its dignitaries could climb the
ranks to the position of bishop, just like in the Catholic Church.
Julio Caro Baroja explains:
...the Devil causes churches and
altars to appear with music ... and devils decked out as saints. The
dignitaries reach rank of bishop, and sub-deacons, deacons and priests
serve Mass. Candles and incense are used for the service and water is
sprinkled from a thurifer. There is an offertory, a sermon, a blessing
over the equivalents of bread and wine ... So that nothing should be
missing there are even false martyrs in the organization.
Again,
such hierarchy was entirely a projection of the Church that bore no
resemblance to ancient paganism. By recognizing both masculine and
feminine faces of God and by understanding God to be infused throughout
the physical world, the Wiccan tradition had no need for strict
hierarchical rankings.
Pope John XXII formalized the
persecution of witchcraft in 1320 when he authorized the Inquisition to
prosecute sorcery. Thereafter papal bulls and declarations grew
increasingly vehement in their condemnation of witchcraft and of all
those who "made a pact with hell." In 1484 Pope Innocent VIII issued
the bull Summis desiderantes authorizing two inquisitors, Kramer and
Sprenger, to systematize the persecution of witches. Two years later
their manual, Malleus Maleficarum, was published with 14 editions
following between 1487-1520 and at least 16 editions between 1574-1669.
A papal bull in 1488 called upon the nations of Europe to rescue the
Church of Christ which was "imperiled by the arts of Satan." The papacy
and the Inquisition had successfully transformed the witch from a
phenomenon whose existence the Church had previously rigorously denied
into a phenomenon that was deemed very real, very frightening, the
antithesis of Christianity, and absolutely deserving of persecution.
It was now heresy not to believe in the existence of witches.
As
the authors of the Malleus Maleficarum noted, "A belief that there are
such things as witches is so essential a part of Catholic faith that
obstinately to maintain the opposite opinion savors of heresy."
Passages in the Bible such as "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live"
were cited to justify the persecution of witches. Both Calvin and Knox
believed that to deny witchcraft was to deny the authority of the
Bible. The eighteenth century founder of Methodism, John Wesley,
declared to those skeptical of witchcraft, "The giving up of witchcraft
is in effect the giving up of the Bible." And an eminent English lawyer
wrote, "To deny the possibility, nay, actual existence of Witchcraft
and Sorcery, is at once flatly to contradict the revealed Word of God
in various passages both of the Old and New Testament."
The
persecution of witchcraft enabled the Church to prolong the
profitability of the Inquisition. The Inquisition had left regions so
economically destitute that the inquisitor Eymeric complained, "In our
days there are no more rich heretics ... it is a pity that so salutary
an institution as ours should be so uncertain of its future." By adding
witchcraft to the crimes it persecuted, however, the Inquisition
exposed a whole new group of people from whom to collect money. It took
every advantage of this opportunity. The author Barbara Walker notes:
Victims
were charged for the very ropes that bound them and the wood that
burned them. Each procedure of torture carried its fee. After the
execution of a wealthy witch, officials usually treated themselves to a
banquet at the expense of the victim's estate.
In 1592 Father Cornelius Loos wrote:
Wretched
creatures are compelled by the severity of the torture to confess
things they have never done ... and so by the cruel butchery innocent
lives are taken; and, by a new alchemy, gold and silver are coined from
human blood.
In many parts of Europe trials for witchcraft began exactly as the trials for other types of heresy stopped.
The
process of formally persecuting witches followed harshest inquisitional
procedure. Once accused of witchcraft, it was virtually impossible to
escape conviction. After cross-examination, the victim's body was
examined for the witch's mark. The historian Walter Nigg described the
process:
...she was stripped naked and the executioner shaved
off all her body hair in order to seek in the hidden places of the body
the sign which the devil imprinted on his cohorts. Warts, freckles, and
birthmarks were considered certain tokens of amorous relations with
Satan.
Should a woman show no sign of a witch's mark, guilt
could still be established by methods such as sticking needles in the
accused's eyes. In such a case, guilt was confirmed if the inquisitor
could find an insensitive spot during the process.
Confession
was then extracted by the hideous methods of torture already developed
during earlier phases of the Inquisition. "Loathe they are to confess
without torture," wrote King James I in his Daemonologie. A physician
serving in witch prisons spoke of women driven half mad:
...by
frequent torture ... kept in prolonged squalor and darkness of their
dungeons ... and constantly dragged out to undergo atrocious torment
until they would gladly exchange at any moment this most bitter
existence for death, are willing to confess whatever crimes are
suggested to them rather than to be thrust back into their hideous
dungeon amid ever recurring torture.
Unless the witch died
during torture, she was taken to the stake. Since many of the burnings
took place in public squares, inquisitors prevented the victims from
talking to the crowds by using wooden gags or cutting their tongue out.
Unlike a heretic or a Jew who would usually be burnt alive only after
they had relapsed into their heresy or Judaism, a witch would be burnt
upon the first conviction.
Sexual mutilation of accused
witches was not uncommon. With the orthodox understanding that divinity
had little or nothing to do with the physical world, sexual desire was
perceived to be ungodly. When the men persecuting the accused witches
found themselves sexually aroused, they assumed that such desire
emanated, not from themselves, but from the woman. They attacked
breasts and genitals with pincers, pliers and red-hot irons. Some rules
condoned sexual abuse by allowing men deemed "zealous Catholics" to
visit female prisoners in solitary confinement while never allowing
female visitors. The people of Toulouse were so convinced that the
inquisitor Foulques de Saint-George arraigned women for no other reason
than to sexually abuse them that they took the dangerous and unusual
step of gathering evidence against him.
The horror of the
witch hunts knew no bounds. The Church had never treated the children
of persecuted parents with compassion, but its treatment of witches'
children was particularly brutal. Children were liable to be prosecuted
and tortured for witchcraft: girls, once they were nine and a half, and
boys, once they were ten and a half. Younger children were tortured in
order to elicit testimony that could be used against their parents.
Even the testimony of two-year-old children was considered valid in
cases of witchcraft though such testimony was never admissible in other
types of trials. A famous French magistrate was known to have regretted
his leniency when, instead of having young children accused of
witchcraft burned, he had only sentenced them to be flogged while they
watched their parents burn.
Witches were held accountable for
nearly every problem. Any threat to social uniformity, any questioning
of authority, and any act of rebellion could now be attributed to and
prosecuted as witchcraft. Not surprisingly, areas of political turmoil
and religious strife experienced the most intense witch hunts.
Witch-hunting tended to be much more severe in Germany, Switzerland,
France, Poland and Scotland than in more homogeneously Catholic
countries such as Italy and Spain. Witch-hunters declared that
"Rebellion is as the sin of Witchcraft." In 1661 Scottish royalists
proclaimed that "Rebellion is the mother of witchcraft." And in England
the Puritan William Perkins called the witch "The most notorious
traytor and rebell that can be..."
The Reformation played a
critical role in convincing people to blame witches for their problems.
Protestants and reformed Catholics taught that any magic was sinful
since it indicated a belief in divine assistance in the physical world.
The only supernatural energy in the physical world was to be of the
devil. Without magic to counter evil or misfortune, people were left
with no form of protection other than to kill the devil's agent, the
witch. Particularly in Protestant countries, where protective rituals
such as crossing oneself, sprinkling holy water or calling on saints or
guardian angels were no longer allowed, people felt defenseless. As
Shakespeare's character, Prospero, says in The Tempest:
Now my charms are all o'erthrown,
And what strength I have's mine own,
which is most faint...
It
was most often the sermons of both Catholic and Protestant preachers
that would instigate a witch hunt. The terrible Basque witch hunt of
1610 began after Fray Domingo de Sardo came to preach about witchcraft.
"There were neither witches nor bewitched until they were talked and
written about," remarked a contemporary named Salazar. The witch hunts
in Salem, Massachusetts, were similarly preceded by the fearful sermons
and preaching of Samuel Parris in 1692.
The climate of fear
created by churchmen of the Reformation led to countless deaths of
accused witches quite independently of inquisitional courts or
procedure. For example, in England where there were no inquisitional
courts and where witch-hunting offered little or no financial reward,
many women were killed for witchcraft by mobs. Instead of following any
judicial procedure, these mobs used methods to ascertain guilt of
witchcraft such as "swimming a witch," where a woman would be bound and
thrown into water to see if she floated. The water, as the medium of
baptism, would either reject her and prove her guilty of witchcraft, or
the woman would sink and be proven innocent, albeit also dead from
drowning.
As people adopted the new belief that the world was
the terrifying realm of the devil, they blamed witches for every
misfortune. Since the devil created all the ills of the world, his
agents -- witches -- could be blamed for them. Witches were thought by
some to have as much if not more power than Christ: they could raise
the dead, turn water into wine or milk, control the weather and know
the past and future. Witches were held accountable for everything from
a failed business venture to a poor emotional state. A Scottish woman,
for instance, was accused of witchcraft and burned to death because she
was seen stroking a cat at the same time as a nearby batch of beer
turned sour. Witches now took the role of scapegoats that had been held
by Jews. Any personal misfortune, bad harvest, famine, or plague was
seen as their fault.
The social turmoil created by the
Reformation intensified witch-hunting. The Reformation diminished the
important role of community and placed a greater demand for personal
moral perfection. As the communal tradition of mutual help broke down
and the manorial system which had provided more generously for widows
disappeared, many people were left in need of charity. The guilt one
felt after refusing to help a needy person could be easily transferred
onto that needy person by accusing her of witchcraft. A contemporary
writer named Thomas Ady described a likely situation resulting from a
failure to perform some hitherto customary social obligation:
Presently
[a householder] cryeth out of some poor innocent neighbour that he or
she hath bewitched him. For, saith he, such an old man or woman came
lately to my door and desired some relief and I denied it, and God
forgive me, my heart did rise against her ... and presently my child,
my wife, myself my horse, my cow, my sheep, my sow, my hog, my dog, my
cat, or somewhat, was thus and thus handled in such a strange manner,
as I dare swear she is a witch, or else how should these things be?
The
most common victims of witchcraft accusations were those women who
resembled the image of the Crone. As the embodiment of mature feminine
power, the old wise woman threatens a structure which acknowledges only
force and domination as avenues of power. The Church never tolerated
the image of the Crone, even in the first centuries when it assimilated
the prevalent images of maiden and mother in the figure of Mary.
Although any woman who attracted attention was likely to be suspected
of witchcraft, either on account of her beauty or because of a
noticeable oddness or deformity, the most common victim was the old
woman. Poor, older women tended to be the first accused even where
witch hunts were driven by inquisitional procedure that profited by
targeting wealthier individuals.
Old, wise healing women were
particular targets for witch-hunters. "At this day," wrote Reginald
Scot in 1584, "it is indifferent to say in the English tongue, 'she is
a witch' or 'she is a wise woman.'" Common people of pre-reformational
Europe relied upon wise women and men for the treatment of illness
rather than upon churchmen, monks or physicians. Robert Burton wrote in
1621:
Sorcerers are too common; cunning men, wizards and white
witches, as they call them, in every village, which, if they be sought
unto, will help almost all infirmities of body and mind.
By
combining their knowledge of medicinal herbs with an entreaty for
divine assistance, these healers provided both more affordable and most
often more effective medicine than was available elsewhere. Churchmen
of the Reformation objected to the magical nature of this sort of
healing, to the preference people had for it over the healing that the
Church or Church-licensed physicians offered, and to the power that it
gave women.
Until the terror of the witch hunts, most people
did not understand why successful healers should be considered evil.
"Men rather uphold them," wrote John Stearne, "and say why should any
man be questioned for doing good." As a Bridgettine monk of the early
sixteenth century recounted of "the simple people", "I have heard them
say full often myself ... 'Sir, we mean well and do believe well and we
think it a good and charitable deed to heal a sick person or a sick
beast.'" And in 1555 Joan Tyrry asserted that "her doings in healing of
man and beast, by the power of God taught to her by the ... fairies, be
both godly and good..."
Indeed, the very invocations used by
wise women sound quite Christian. For example, a 1610 poem recited when
picking the herb vervain, also known as St. Johnswort, reads,
Hallowed be thou Vervain, as thou growest on the ground
For in the mount of Calvary there thou was first found
Thou healest our Saviour, Jesus Christ, and staunchest his bleeding wound
In the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost
I take thee from the ground.
But
in the eyes of orthodox Christians, such healing empowered people to
determine the course of their lives instead of submitting helplessly to
the will of God. According to churchmen, health should come from God,
not from the efforts of human beings. Bishop Hall said, "we that have
no power to bid must pray..." Ecclesiastical courts made the customers
of witches publicly confess to being "heartily sorry for seeking man's
help, and refusing the help of God..." An Elizabethan preacher
explained that any healing "is not done by conjuration or divination,
as Popish priests profess and practice, but by entreating the Lord
humbly in fasting and prayer..." And according to Calvin, no medicine
could change the course of events which had already been determined by
the Almighty.
Preachers and Church-licensed male physicians
tried to fill the function of healer. Yet, their ministrations were
often considered ineffective compared to those of a wise woman. The
keeper of the Cantebury gaol admitted to freeing an imprisoned wise
woman in 1570 because "the witch did more good by her physic than Mr.
Pudall and Mr. Wood, being preachers of God's word..." A character in
the 1593 Dialogue concerning Witches said of a local wise woman that,
"she doeth more good in one year than all these scripture men will do
so long as they live..."
Even the Church-licensed male
physicians, who relied upon purgings, bleedings, fumigations, leeches,
lancets, and toxic chemicals such as mercury, were little match for an
experienced wise woman's knowledge of herbs. As the well-known
physician, Paracelsus, asked, "...does not the old nurse very often
beat the doctor?" Even Francis Bacon, who demonstrated very little
respect for women, thought that "empirics and old women" were "more
happy many times in their cures than learned physicians..."
Physicians often attributed their own incompetence to witchcraft. As Thomas Ady wrote:
The
reason is ignorantiae pallium maleficium et incantatio -- a cloak for a
physician's ignorance. When he cannot find the nature of the disease,
he saith the party is bewitched.
When an illness could not be
understood, even the highest body of England, the Royal College of
Physicians of London, was known to accept the explanation of
witchcraft.
Not surprisingly, churchmen portrayed the healing
woman as the most evil of all witches. William Perkins declared, "The
most horrible and detestable monster ... is the good witch." The Church
included in its definition of witchcraft anyone with knowledge of herbs
for "those who used herbs for cures did so only through a pact with the
Devil, either explicit or implicit." Medicine had long been associated
with herbs and magic. The Greek and Latin words for medicine,
"pharmakeia" and "veneficium," meant both "magic" and "drugs." Mere
possession of herbal oils or ointments became grounds for accusation of
witchcraft.
A person's healing ability easily led to
conviction of witchcraft. In 1590 a woman in North Berwick was
suspected of witchcraft because she was curing "all such as were
troubled or grieved with any kind of sickness or infirmity." The ailing
archbishop of St. Andrews called upon Alison Peirsoun of Byrehill and
then, after she had successfully cured him, not only refused to pay her
but had her arrested for witchcraft and burned to death. Simply
treating unhealthy children by washing them was cause for convicting a
Scottish woman of witchcraft.
Witch-hunters also targeted
midwives. Orthodox Christians believed the act of giving birth defiled
both mother and child. In order to be readmitted to the Church, the
mother should be purified through the custom of "churching," which
consisted of a quarantine period of forty days if her baby was a boy
and eighty days if her baby was a girl, during which both she and her
baby were considered heathen. Some thought that a woman who died during
this period should be refused a Christian burial. Until the
Reformation, midwives were deemed necessary to take care of what was
regarded as the nasty business of giving birth, a dishonorable
profession best left in the hands of women. But with the Reformation
came an increased awareness of the power of midwives. Midwives were now
suspected of possessing the skill to abort a fetus, to educate women
about techniques of birth control, and to mitigate a woman's labor
pains.
A midwife's likely knowledge of herbs to relieve labor
pains was seen as a direct affront to the divinely ordained pain of
childbirth. In the eyes of churchmen, God's sentence upon Eve should
apply to all women. As stated in Genesis:
Unto the woman [God]
said, I will greatly multiply thy sorrow and thy conception; in sorrow
thou shalt bring forth children; and thy desire shall be to thy
husband, and he shall rule over thee.
To relieve labor pains,
as Scottish clergymen put it, would be "vitiating the primal curse of
woman..." The introduction of chloroform to help a woman through the
pain of labor brought forth the same opposition. According to a New
England minister:
Chloroform is a decoy of Satan, apparently
offering itself to bless women; but in the end it will harden society
and rob God of the deep earnest cries which arise, in time of trouble,
for help.
Martin Luther wrote, "If [women] become tired or
even die, that does not matter. Let them die in childbirth -- that is
why they are there." It is hardly surprising that women who not only
possessed medicinal knowledge but who used that knowledge to comfort
and care for other women would become prime suspects of witchcraft.
How
many lives were lost during the centuries of witch-hunting will never
be known. Some members of the clergy proudly reported the number of
witches they condemned, such as the bishop of Würtzburg who claimed
1900 lives in five years, or the Lutheran prelate Benedict Carpzov who
claimed to have sentenced 20,000 devil worshippers. But the vast
majority of records have been lost and it is doubtful that such
documents would have recorded those killed outside of the courts.
Contemporary
accounts hint at the extent of the holocaust. Barbara Walker writes
that "the chronicler of Treves reported that in the year 1586, the
entire female population of two villages was wiped out by the
inquisitors, except for only two women left alive." Around 1600 a man
wrote:
Germany is almost entirely occupied with building fires
for the witches ... Switzerland has been compelled to wipe out many of
her villages on their account. Travelers in Lorraine may see thousands
and thousands of the stakes to which witches are bound.
While
the formal persecution of witches raged from about 1450 to 1750,
sporadic killing of women on the account of suspected witchcraft has
continued into recent times. In 1928 a family of Hungarian peasants was
acquitted of beating an old woman to death whom they claimed was a
witch. The court based its decision on the ground that the family had
acted out of "irresistible compulsion." In 1976 a poor spinster,
Elizabeth Hahn, was suspected of witchcraft and of keeping familiars,
or devil's agents, in the form of dogs. The neighbors in her small
German village ostracized her, threw rocks at her, and threatened to
beat her to death before burning her house, badly burning her and
killing her animals. A year later in France, an old man was killed for
ostensible sorcery. And in 1981, a mob in Mexico stoned a woman to
death for her apparent witchcraft which they believed had incited the
attack upon Pope John Paul II.
Witch hunts were neither small
in scope nor implemented by a few aberrant individuals; the persecution
of witches was the official policy of both the Catholic and Protestant
Churches. The Church invented the crime of witchcraft, established the
process by which to prosecute it, and then insisted that witches be
prosecuted. After much of society had rejected witchcraft as a
delusion, some of the last to insist upon the validity of witchcraft
were among the clergy. Under the pretext of first heresy and then
witchcraft, anyone could be disposed of who questioned authority or the
Christian view of the world.
Witch-hunting secured the
conversion of Europe to orthodox Christianity. Through the terror of
the witch hunts, reformational Christians convinced common people to
believe that a singular male God reigned from above, that he was
separate from the earth, that magic was evil, that there was a powerful
devil, and that women were most likely to be his agents. As a
by-product of the witch hunts, the field of medicine transferred to
exclusively male hands and the Western herbal tradition was largely
destroyed. The vast numbers of people brutalized and killed, as well as
the impact upon the common perception of God, make the witch hunts one
of the darkest chapters of human history.
http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/ellerbe1.htm